Kurt und Ursula Schubert Archiv
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o:475243 Kurt und Ursula Schubert Collection
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Objects found (373)
o:472633 Illumination in medieval Germany
Illumination in medieval Germany
Short sketch of the history of Ashkenazi Judaism
Late Antiquity approaches to figurative Jewish painting, since the 6th century reversion to the Jewish prohibition of images
In what was later Germany very large Bibles are popular among Christians.... show more
Short sketch of the history of Ashkenazi Judaism
Late Antiquity approaches to figurative Jewish painting, since the 6th century reversion to the Jewish prohibition of images
In what was later Germany very large Bibles are popular among Christians. The early Hebrew manuscript production reflects this trend.
Christian illumination of books was practised in lay, urban workshops from the 13th century onwards, thus making it easy for Jews to have access to models. Christian books are used as pawns at Jewish money lenders.
The Jewish prohibition of images and the disagreements about the human figure (see lecture Bible Images in Judaism): polemics against figurative images from the side of Rabbinic authorities
One of the earliest examples of Ashkenazi manuscript tradition is the Ashkenazi Bible in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana (see Lecture Bible Images in Judaism), The Genesis Initials (The Fall): Adam and Eva are seen with covered faces and from behind. At the end of the Pentateuch there are more extensive illustrations on the book of Ruth, as well of the Righteous at the messianic banquet (eating of the Messianic animals Behemot, Leviathan and Ziz).
Rashi Commentary in Munich: the oldest dated manuscript with illustrations, Würzburg 1233 (Visit of the three Angels to Abraham). The iconography of this Rashi Commentary is atypical, as otherwise only sketches of the temple plan are to be found in these texts.
Regensburg Pentateuch (see Bible Images in Judaism). The giving of the Torah on Sinai. The mountain is put over the people like a bucket, an image that can be traced back to Rabbinic commentaries. The story of Esther, of Job, the temple objects (Aaron in the clothes of the High Priest lighting the Menorah).
Question of whether the Regensburg Pentateuch was illuminated by Christian or Jewish painters (Robert Suckale). The close relationship to Rabbinic commentary suggests the latter.
Micrography (massora figurata): especially popular in the German lands Schubert thinks that micrography also has to do with the bypassing of prohibition of images. Vatican Bible with micrographic hunting scene; Pentateuch in London
A collection of Mahzor manuscripts:
Worms Mahzor from Würzburg (1272, Representation of the Great Shabbat with the motif of Godly love seen as a couple)
In addition to Passover, there is also a representation of the Seder meal (Worms Mahzor, Dresden Mahzor).
Representation of the Shavuot in the Dresden Mahzor and the Worms Mahzor
Leipzig Mahzor: the preparation of the Matzah and the persecution of the Israelites for the Passover liturgy, The giving of the Torah for Shavuot, the Shofar blower and the Binding of Isaac for the New Year’s Festival, Abraham in the fiery furnace of Nimrod at Yom Kippur
The workshop of the scribe Hayyim on the Upper Rhine: The Schocken Bible, Tripartite Mahzor, Pentateuch of the Duke of Sussex
Codex of the Christian Hebraist Reuchlin (15th century)
De Castro Pentateuch
Coburg Pentateuch (considerations on whether this manuscript originates from Coburg)
Ashkenazi Haggadot: The Bird’s Head Haggadah (conceivably copied by the same scribe as the Leipzig Mahzor) with different ritual representations: the Seder meal, the bread of affliction, the eating of the bitter herbs, scenes related to the text, Biblical texts: the persecution of the Israelites by the Egyptians (these carry a flag with the Habsburg eagle, possibly an allusion to the persecution of Rabbi Meir of Rothenburg by Rudolf von Habsburg).
Later Haggadot such as the Second Nurnberg Haggadah and the Yahuda Haggadah contain especially extensive cycles (the preparation of the Matzot, the cleaning of leavened foods, the bread of affliction; extensive series of Biblical scenes following the Bible text chronologically. These illustrations are indebted to Rabbinic Commentaries (for instance Joseph as the Pharaoh’s viceroy riding on a horse, the childhood story of Moses, where the Pharaoh’s daughter is seen with a supernaturally outstretched arm; Zipporah cares for Moses in captivity; the saving of Moses from death on the way to Egypt and the circumcision of his son). The embedding of these scenes in Midrash literature possibly refers to earlier Jewish models (reference to David Kaufmann, who observes that Johann Christoph Wagenseil had seen a fragment of a Jewish illustrated manuscript).
These Haggadah illustrations serve for the edification and entertainment of women and children during the reading of the Haggadah at the Seder meal.
(Translator: Joan Avery)
The Corresponding illustrations, selected by the Center of Jewish Art (Hebrew University, Jerusalem), can be found here: http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:525989
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o:472616 Jewish Art in Antiquity (Basel 1983)
Jewish Art in Antiquity (Basel 1983)
The Biblical prohibition of images and the way it was applied in different cultural contexts (see lecture Bible Images in Judaism http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:472253)
Introduction: Dura Europos Synagogue ( compare lecture Bible Images... show more
The Biblical prohibition of images and the way it was applied in different cultural contexts (see lecture Bible Images in Judaism http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:472253)
Introduction: Dura Europos Synagogue ( compare lecture Bible Images in Judaism)
Paintings around the Torah shrine: temple building, Lulav, Etrog, Menroah, narrative depiction of the binding of Isaac.
The central picture had been painted over several times and is therefore not well preserved. In the lower layers there were illustrations of the tree of life, David as the forerunner of the Messiah, the blessing of Jacob’s sons and the blessing of both of Joseph’s sons. These pictures are known from drawings, made by the excavators immediately after their uncovering.
Narrative representation on the Western Wall: the story of Esther
The Ezekiel Cycle (see Death and Resurrection lecture)
Connections to early Christian art (the catacombs of the Via Latina, the Vienna Genesis, compare the lectures The Contribution of Jewish Studies to the Research on Early Christian art, The Influence of Jewish painting of early Christian Art, Christian-Jewish Encounters in Art suggesting that there existed Jewish book illumination in late antiquity.
Mosaic floors in the synagogues of Hammat Tiberias and Beth Alpha. In one inscription the Synagogue of Hammat Tiberias, among others, is called a ‘holy place’. One of the representations shows the temple objects, which suggests the holy character of the temple. This refers to the eschatological temple. Next to it there is a zodiac, which represents the yearly cycle, as ordained by God.
Jewish art of late antiquity ceases to exist towards the end of the sixth century due to apparent objections to images within a movement of withdrawal within Judaism, and under the influence of the Byzantine iconoclastic controversy.
(Translator: Joan Avery)
The Corresponding illustrations, selected by the Center of Jewish Art (Hebrew University, Jerusalem), can be found here: http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:524560
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o:472602 Haggada
Haggada
Summary of the main aspects of the preparations: Cleansing of all that is leavened, laying of the Seder table with an egg, bones, Charoset, four beakers of wine, Matzah, Maror (the bitter herbs), Karpas and salt water
The order of the Seder:... show more
Summary of the main aspects of the preparations: Cleansing of all that is leavened, laying of the Seder table with an egg, bones, Charoset, four beakers of wine, Matzah, Maror (the bitter herbs), Karpas and salt water
The order of the Seder: Kiddush, hand washing, breaking of the Matzah, bread of the poor, asking the youngest son, asking the four sons, reading of the Passover Midrash, Mentioning and quoting several Rabbis, eating of the Matzah and the Maror, flour, Hallel, Pour Out Your Wrath, eschatological perspective, Passover songs
The following pages contain a copy of the Haggadah text with German translation
For more information of the Passover festival, see Jakob Allerhand, in Judentum im Mittelalter, (Judaism in the Middle Ages), Austr.-Kat. Halbturn 1975.
(Translator: Joan Avery)
The Corresponding illustrations, selected by the Center of Jewish Art (Hebrew University, Jerusalem), can be found here: https://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:556131
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Jewish Festivals in the Liturgical Year (Religion Teachers Conference Landeck 1987)
Introduction to the main Jewish Festivals: in the Bible the three most important obligatory holy days Passover, Shavuot and Sukkot (festival of weeks) can be traced back to agricultural festivals: the first grain harvest, the first wheat harvest and... show more
Introduction to the main Jewish Festivals: in the Bible the three most important obligatory holy days Passover, Shavuot and Sukkot (festival of weeks) can be traced back to agricultural festivals: the first grain harvest, the first wheat harvest and thanksgiving festival.
In the Israelite context these three festivals were pilgrimage festivals to the temple in Jerusalem.
Later these festivals were linked to Biblical events. Passover: the exodus from Egypt; Shavuot: The presentation of the law; Sukkot: wandering through the desert.
The earliest recorded prayer books are those of Amram Gaon, 9th century, of Saadia Gaon of the 10th century and in the 11th century the Mahzor Vitry of Simcha ben Samuel, a student of Rashi, Mishneh Torah of Maimonides, 12th century.
Siddur: Statutory prayers
Mahzor: liturgical hymns (piyutim not obligatory); brief history of the tradition of piyut poetry and the most important poets. Most of the Mahzorim come in two volumes: Spring and Autumn.
In the 13th century a rich tradition of illuminated Mahzorim began in southern Germany. This tradition later moved on to Italy.
Special Shabbatot before Passover: Sheqalim (Contribution for the building of the Temple: Oxford – Michael Mahzor, Jerusalem – Worms Mahzor, Leipzig Mahzor); Zakhor (Amalekites: Oxford – Laud Mahzor); Purim (Story of Esther: Oxford – Laud Mahzor, Leipzig Mahzor); Para (The High Priest slaughters the red cow: Oxford – Laud Mahzor); Hodesh (New Moon before Passover: Oxford – Laud Mahzor, Leipzig Mahzor)
The So-Called Great Shabbat: the piyut ties in with the Song of Songs and the illustration shows the love of God for His people as demonstrated in the depiction of a couple (Laud Mahzor, Leipzig Mahzor, Hamburger Siddur – Levy 37). The image in the Hamburger Siddur shows the bride with veiled eyes, recalling the Christian representations of the Synagogue (Tournai Cathedral, approx. 1250).
Passover: brief background information on the Passover Haggadah, which is not part of the Mahzor. Some of the Passover topics belonging to the Mahzor are: the cleaning of the kitchen vessels, the preparation of the Mazot, the Egyptians’ persecution of the Israelites (Leipzig Mahzor, Darmstadt Mahzor); Zodiac Signs (some accompanied by labours of the month) as an illustration of the prayers for dew in spring and rain in autumn: Michael Mahzor, Worms Mahzor, Leizpig Mahzor
The Ashkenazi Passover Haggadot usually contain a richer programme of ritual scenes, such as the images from the Second Nurnberg Haggadah (London, Sofer Collection) and the closely related Yahuda Haggada (Israel Museum). Here one can see the Search for leaven, the preparation of Mazot, the recitation of ‘This is the Bread of Affliction’, the seder table, the questions of the youngest son, the four questioning sons (Parma Haggada), Jacob goes to Egypt, slavery (the Bird’s Head Haggadah), the plagues, the Exodus from Egypt, Rabban Gamliel, Matza, Maror, Afikoman, the new Jerusalem.
The illustration cycles of the medieval Passover Haggadot have four main points: ritual themes, themes relevant to the texts, biblical and eschatological themes
Shavuot: The presentation of the Law on Sinai (Laud Mahzor, Mahzor in three volumes) A lovely hind and a graceful doe (Mahzor Worms)
Autumn Holy Days, see the lecture: The Great Holy Days in the medieval Mahzorim Illustration https://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:472552
Hanukkah: Festival of Lights: Darmstadt Mahzor- High Priest lights the Menorah.
Further Information about the Festivals in Kurt Schubert: Religion des Judentums, p. 137-142.
(Translator: Joan Avery)
The Corresponding illustrations, selected by the Center of Jewish Art (Hebrew University, Jerusalem), can be found here: http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:525988
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The Main Holy Days in Medieval Ashkenazi Mahzorim illustrations
Responsum of Meir von Rothenburg (died 1293) deals with the possibility of illustrations in prayer books and does not approve, as they distract worshippers from prayer.
The Mahzorim illustrations of the 13 and 14th centuries refer to the liturgical... show more
Responsum of Meir von Rothenburg (died 1293) deals with the possibility of illustrations in prayer books and does not approve, as they distract worshippers from prayer.
The Mahzorim illustrations of the 13 and 14th centuries refer to the liturgical hymns (piyutim) in these books.
Some of these illustrations are of humans with animal heads, in order to circumvent the prohibition of images.1
Laud Mahzor (Oxford, Bodleian Library): New year, 1st. Tag (melekh – King); 2nd day (Binding of Isaac);
Tripartite Mahzor (Oxford, Bodleian): Yom Kippur: (kol nidre – all vows);
Leipzig Mahzor (Leizpig, University Library): Yom Kippur, Afternoon prayer (Abraham in the fiery furnace of Nimrod) – this image emphasises the strength of Abraham’s faith, which is then the topic in the adjacent piyut
Leipzig Mahzor: Sukkot (Man with lulav and etrog)
Laud Mahzor: Simchat Torah: Man with a Torah roll
(Translator: Joan Avery)
The Corresponding illustrations, selected by the Center of Jewish Art (Hebrew University, Jerusalem), can be found here: http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:525987
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Three Lectures at the Humboldt University, Berlin
The first lecture broadly corresponds to the lectures that appeared in file "Christian-Jewish Encounters in Art" ( http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/o:472218 and "Bible Images in Judaism" ( http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:472253 )
The second... show more
The first lecture broadly corresponds to the lectures that appeared in file "Christian-Jewish Encounters in Art" ( http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/o:472218 and "Bible Images in Judaism" ( http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:472253 )
The second lecture deals with medieval book illumination with special emphasis on figural art
At the beginning of the second lecture there is a short overview of the manuscripts from the Middle East, which had not been dealt with in earlier lectures: Moses ben Asher Codex, 8951 (Cairo, Karaite Synagogue), Salomon Ben Buya Bible, The First Saint Petersburg Bible (‘First Leningrad Bible, Saint Petersburg, Russian National Library). These bibles contain ornamental carpet pages or representations of the temple implements. The latter are similar to illustrations in Christian art, such as the Codex Amiatinus (circa 700) and influence later similar representations in the Sephardi Bibles (Bible from Perpignan, 1299, Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France).
The discussion of the Ashkenazi manuscripts corresponds to the lecture mentioned above (Bible Images in Judaism), and also mentions the collection from Northern France (London, British Library).
The iconography of European manuscripts traditions can be traced back to the frescoes of the Dura Europos Synagogue or seen as connecting elements between early Christian art and that of the medieval period in which traces of Jewish interpretation traditions can be discerned (The Influence of Jewish painting on early Christian art), Christian-Jewish encounters in art). Stylistically the artistic examples of Hebrew book illumination are related to their contemporary Christian book illumination.
The creation of Adam in the Sephardi Haggadah, London Or. 2884 can be traced back to the Cotton Genesis Recension (preserved in Venice, San Marco, in the dome of creation, 13th century).
Joseph and the wife of Potiphar, Golden Haggadah can be traced back to a version of the Vienna Genesis and to a motif found in the Midrash.
(Translator: Joan Avery)
The Corresponding illustrations, selected by the Center of Jewish Art (Hebrew University, Jerusalem), can be found here: https://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:556126
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The Triumphal Arch at Santa Maria Maggiore: an expression of the papacy’s political claim
Methodological background: the lecture addresses the representations of Jesus’ infancy from the Gospels. Following early Christian practice, the contents were brought in relation with the politics of the day. The Christian content should therefore be... show more
Methodological background: the lecture addresses the representations of Jesus’ infancy from the Gospels. Following early Christian practice, the contents were brought in relation with the politics of the day. The Christian content should therefore be checked against its contemporary political topics.
Short description of the mosaic ornamentation from the 5th century (Triumphal Arch and the walls of the nave). These are from the original construction phase, which according to the no longer existing inscription, occurred during Pope Sixtus’ papacy (432-40). The building of the church dedicated to Mary is linked to the Council of Ephesus, which declared Mary as Theotokos, the Mother of God.
Another inscription on the Triumphal Arch itself refers to Sixtus as the ‘Bishop of God’s People’, which already established a clear connection to the political status of the bishop of Rome.
The order of the Gospel scenes does not correspond to that of the gospel texts themselves. In addition, there are several apocryphal elements to be noted, such as those supporting Mary’s Davidian ancestry, as well as the priestly and double kingly function of the awaited Messiah. This double function is alluded to in the representation of two buildings: those of the house of Levi and Juda. This can be compared with the apse mosaic in the church of Parenzo (Annunciation and Visitation, 6th century, Armenian Gospel book/ Codex from Edshmiazdin, 10th century, the Syrian Rabbula Codex, 6th century). From an earlier drawing that was exposed during restoration works on the apse, one can see that the annunciation to Zacharias might have been the original plan, which would re-inforce the priestly ancestry of Mary’s family.
In the first nave mosaic (adjacent to the Triumphal Arch) the subject is also priesthood as seen in the meeting of Melchisedek with Abraham.
This line of thought is continued in the presentation of Jesus in the temple. Here one sees a representative of the priesthood stretching his right hand out to a matron, suggesting marriage, thus alluding to Jesus’ covenant with the church, to which Ambrosius often referred. The temple’s architecture carries features of the Roman temple, Rome’s national shrine. One of the priests is seen with the traditional physiognomy of Peter, thus a clear reference to the papacy.
(Translator: Joan Avery)
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Jewish Background to the Representation of the Giving of the Law on Sinai in Christian manuscripts
There are two strands in which Christian iconographic conventions can be brought in conjunction with Jewish tradition through parallels in late antique Jewish art, for instance the Synagogue of Dura Europos, and the influence of Rabbinic Bible... show more
There are two strands in which Christian iconographic conventions can be brought in conjunction with Jewish tradition through parallels in late antique Jewish art, for instance the Synagogue of Dura Europos, and the influence of Rabbinic Bible exegesis, Midrash literature.
The giving of the law on Sinai and the reading of the law in the Carolingian Bibles of Grandval Moutier and San Paolo Fuori le Mura from the 9th century.
In two superimposed registers there are scenes that combine various elements from the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy.
Summary of the suggestions made by Schmid, Köhler, Gaehde, Kessler. Kessler showed the parallels between a representation of the Giving of the Law and an old English Aelfric Paraphrase, which, according to some scholars is based on an early Christian model (see Pächt). Another particularly close connection exists between these and the Bible in San Isidoro, Leon, 960.
The reading of the Law appears also in the Catalan Roda Bible, 11th century.
Another parallel can be found in the Ashburnham Pentateuch, 7th century [now to be dated to the sixth century]
The recitation of the Law in the Tabernacle is what these representations all have in common. Rabbinic traditions assume the transmission of the law both on Mount Sinai, and in the Tabernacle.
The Rabbinic tradition also equates the Tabernacle and the Temple (a similar understanding results from the fact that in the Synagogue of Dura Europos the Tabernacle is seen as a built temple).
The mentioned Bible from Castile, now in San Isidoro in Leon also illustrates a representation of the interior of the tabernacle with the temple implements. The tabernacle also appears here as a built temple. This representation, also seen in other Castilian Bibles, in turn connects with Sephardi-Hebrew book art, in which representations of temple objects were particularly popular (Bible from the South of France, from Florence, the Sephardic Bible in Milan, 14th century.
It is therefore possible to assume that the Castilian Bibles are based on earlier Jewish models.
(Translator: Joan Avery)
The Corresponding illustrations, selected by the Center of Jewish Art (Hebrew University, Jerusalem), can be found here: http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:524559
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The Contribution of Jewish Studies to the Research of Early Christian Art (the significance of Jewish Sources for Early Christian Iconography).
Otto Pächt (The Rise of Narrative in Twelfth Century England) indicates that there was no tradition of extensive New Testament picture cycles until the 12th century.
Sarcophagus with Representations of Jesus’ miracles, the Passion Sarcophagus,... show more
Otto Pächt (The Rise of Narrative in Twelfth Century England) indicates that there was no tradition of extensive New Testament picture cycles until the 12th century.
Sarcophagus with Representations of Jesus’ miracles, the Passion Sarcophagus, Rabbula Gospel
However, extensive picture cycles relating to the Old Testament can be found in early Christian art: Callixtus Catacombs of the 3rd century, the Jonah Cycle; the catacomb at the Via Latina, 4th century, Vienna Genesis, Byzantium; Cotton Genesis, Egypt 5th century: a continuation of this tradition followed in the mid Byzantine Octateuch manuscripts, 11 and 12th century; the Old English Aelfric Paraphrase, 11th century, Caedmon Paraphrase, Oxford, 10th century.
In Judaism pictorial narratives can already be found in the 3rd century in the Synagogue of Dura Europos.
Image in the Synagogue of Dura Europos 244 A.D. of infant Moses being hidden and discovered.
Thoughts about the roots of Jewish art: inscriptions in the paintings are both in Aramaic and in Greek; Rabbinic influence is clearly visible, assuming that these themes go back to the Jewish book art of an earlier period.
A further argument for the existence of such late Antique Jewish book art is the fact that in early Christian and medieval art there are many cases where iconography can be interpreted with the help of Rabbinic Bible exegesis, or Midrash literature.
Samuel’s anointing of David, Dura Europos Synagogue; Sacra Parallela Manuscript, Palestine 7th century, Vatopaidi Psalter after 1088. In this case Rabbinic exegesis does not shape the interpretation, yet the parallels between late Christian and early Jewish versions still makes an affinity plausible.
A similar situation results from the representation of Noah’s Ark in the catacombs at the Via Latina. This varies from the familiar representation in catacomb iconography and shows Noah together with his wife. An analogous representation can be seen on a coin from Apamea, 193-253, where the scene runs from right to left.
Influence of Rabbinic exegesis in the catacombs of the Via Latina can be seen in the representation of Abraham welcoming the three angels in Mamre: [link: Christian-Jewish Encounters in Art http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:472218], compared to Christian examples not influenced by Midrash literature: Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, 432-36, San Vitale, Ravenna, beginning of the 6th century.
The iconography of Abraham, as influenced by the Rabbinic tradition, can also be seen on the sarcophagus in the Callixtus catacomb from the 3rd century as well as on the 12th century tapestry in the Halberstadt Cathedral treasure.
Catacomb at the Via Latina, expulsion of Adam and Eve from paradise with later parallels in the Creation Dome of San Marco in Venice, 13th century, related to the early Christian Cotton Genesis of 5th century Egypt; the Vienna Genesis, the St. Albans Psalter, England 12th century (Pächt), Farfa Bible, Ripoll, 12th century, Hortus Deliciarum, Herrad of Landsberg, Alsace, 11th century; Millstadt Genesis, 12th century; possibly a representation of the Shekhina (in-dwelling of the Godhead); the Fiery Wheel; Cherubs.
The story of Joseph in the Vienna Genesis: Joseph and the wife of Potifar. This representation contains many non-Biblical elements (reference to Levin, Revel Neher, Gutmann). Some of these have parallels in the frescoes in the church of San Paolo fuori le Mura (only the copies of which are preserved). In both images one can see Potifar’s wife in bed, which goes back to Rabbinic tradition.
In the Vienna Genesis the rest of the story of Joseph is also based on non-Biblical Jewish tradition, particularly the episodes of Aseneth.
Octateuch iconography (vat. gr.746): illustration of the Fall with a four-legged snake looking like a camel. This detail can also be ascribed to Jewish tradition and is perhaps based on a late Antiquity Jewish model (Weitzmann).
Summary: it is now impossible to gauge to what extent the Christian illustrations were created in accordance with transmitted Jewish models, or how much they were new creations, mixed with various Jewish elements to become novel compositions. For late antique Jewish painting was also shaped by the Hellenistic painting tradition.
(Translator: Joan Avery)
The Corresponding illustrations, selected by the Center of Jewish Art (Hebrew University, Jerusalem), can be found here: http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:524558
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Influence of Jewish painting on early Christian art
The question of the influence of Jewish painting on early Christian art (see also Christian-Jewish Encounters in Art http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:472218) became particularly relevant with the discovery of the Dura Europos Synagogue... show more
The question of the influence of Jewish painting on early Christian art (see also Christian-Jewish Encounters in Art http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:472218) became particularly relevant with the discovery of the Dura Europos Synagogue and its murals (244 AD)
Previously most scholars assumed that the Jewish prohibition of images prevent figural art in a Jewish context
Biblical descriptions of the artistic elements of the Temple (such as the Brazen Sea and the Cherubs)
Illuminated Hebrew manuscripts and their pictorial ornamentation draws on late antique models
Rabbinic texts dealing with the question of representative art lead to the supposition that the murals in Dura Europos were not a unique case
Assumption that Jewish art harks back to the second century and originated in the metropoles where Jews met with Hellenistic culture (Antiochia)
Observation that some of the picture themes of the Synagogue recur later in Christian art, although it must be recalled that the Synagogue itself only existed for eleven years in this form
Some of the image formulations are not composed monumentally, but seem rather to be borrowed from the small medium of text illustration
Catacomb of the Via Latina (4th century) with numerous biblical (Old Testament) representations: in strong contrast to other catacomb paintings which concentrate on salvation scenes; these are connected to the liturgy of the dead
The painting of the catacomb of the Via Latina on the other hand are of a much more narrative nature; they are more diverse and present iconographic elements borrowed from Jewish Biblical exegesis (Midrash literature). The compositions of some of these images are reminiscent of the Synagogue of Dura Europos (Jacob’s dream in Bethel). Yet they reappear in Christian art (Antependium of Salerno, Jacob’s dream in Bethel, circa 1100; Mosaics in the Monreale Cathedral in Sicily, end of the 12th century, Alba Bible, Castile, 15th century)
Hiding and discovery of the infant Moses in the Dura Europos Synagogue compared with the catacomb of the Via Latina: two different picture formulations have been preserved, both derived from Jewish Bible interpretation. The iconography of the Synagogue additionally uses Hellenistic pictorial language
Parallels of this order of scenes can be found later in the Ashburnham Pentateuch (6th century); in the Byzantine Octateuch manuscripts, for instance Vatican, gr. 746 and 747 (11th century)
Echoes of this iconography later appear in Haggadah illustration (Golden Haggadah, Finding of the infant Moses, circa 1320)
Exodus from Egypt and Crossing through the Sea of Reeds, Dura Europos Synagogue compared to the Crossing through the Sea of Reeds in the catacomb of the Via Latina
Particular interpretation difficulties in the illustration of the Israelites on Sinai in the Via Latina Catacomb. Interpretation attempt with the aid of Rabbinic exegesis equating Sinai as the place of God’s revelation with the Temple Mount. In the Sinai scene one can see a Temple building; this scene was used again in another catacomb cubiculum, where the original content of the picture was no longer understood however and the iconography shifted to one of the resurrection of Lazarus and the Temple building interpreted as a grave
Later Christian comparison samples: Israelites on Sinai on a mural in the Necropolis of el- Bagawat, Upper Egypt, 4th Century; Byzantine manuscripts, for instance vat.gr.reg.1.; Ashburnham Pentateuch; Carolingian Bible of Grandval Moutier, 9th century.
(Translator: Joan Avery)
The Corresponding illustrations, selected by the Center of Jewish Art (Hebrew University, Jerusalem), can be found here: http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:524557
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Bible Images in Judaism (Celle, Hannover 1990)
1898: The Sarajevo Haggadah becomes known (Aragon, 14th century, Sarajevo National Museum of Bosnia Herzegovina) – first appraisal of Jewish pictorial art hitherto unknown
1932: Discovery of the Synagogue of Dura Europos, 244 AD.
Marginalisation of... show more
1898: The Sarajevo Haggadah becomes known (Aragon, 14th century, Sarajevo National Museum of Bosnia Herzegovina) – first appraisal of Jewish pictorial art hitherto unknown
1932: Discovery of the Synagogue of Dura Europos, 244 AD.
Marginalisation of Jewish pictorial art in research both into Judaism because of the prohibition of images and also into art history due to the remote location of Dura Europos at the Eastern frontier of the Roman Empire.
Discussion of the prohibition to create images from the Bible to rabbinic literature; prior to the Second World War the prevailing assumption was that there were non-rabbinic marginal groups favouring art, whereas ‘normative’ Jewry was iconophobic
New approaches in research after the Second World War: late antique examples and medieval manuscripts could be covered relatively quickly, whereas the manuscripts from the Baroque period still needed pioneer work.
Discussion of various examples from the synagogue at Dura Europos: the finding of the infant Moses and the resurrection from the dead in the Ezekiel story (see the lecture Death and Resurrection)
Mid sixth century saw a strengthening of Jewish national awareness: abandoning the Greek language, putting the synagogue liturgy into Hebrew during which pictorial language was harshly rejected.
Only in the 13th century was there another blossoming of figural art within the context of urban culture. Jewish artists could use the techniques of book illumination for urban scriptoria.
Three groups of medieval manuscripts:
Ashkenazi: German Lands and Northern France
Sephardi: Iberia and Southern France
Italy
In the Ashkenazi there is a clear divide between Jewish book art and its Christian surroundings. The literature of Jewish commentaries plays a big role in its iconography.
This art is defined by a strong coyness of the human figure: at least the faces of the figures are covered (Genesis Initials, Ashkenazi Bible of the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, Würzburg 1236-38) or they are replaced by animal heads (Giving of the Law, Bird’s Head Haggadah in the Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Rhineland, approximately 1300, eschatological scenes in the Ashkenazi Bible of the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan); the heads remain without facial features.1
Short discussion of the micrography (the representation of Jonah in the British Library, MS Add. 21160, Bible circa 1300).
Regensburg Pentateuch (Israel Museum): Biblical scenes with full human representations. The scenes are strongly influenced by Rabbinic commentary literature (the circumcision of Isaac, the binding of Isaac).
Ashkenazi Haggadah illustration of the 15th century as a further central genre of Hebrew book illumination: the Second Nurnberg Haggadah (London, David Sofer Collection, formerly the Schocken Library): The Wise Men of Bne Braq, a topic mentioned in the text of the Haggadah. The text illustrations in this manuscript run parallel to a continuous, chronologically arranged Bible cycle (Finding of the infant Moses). As is common in Ashkenazi Haggadah illustration, the images appear as unframed drawings on the margins of the pages. The Biblical illustrations are heavily influenced by Rabbinic commentary literature.
In Iberia the Haggadah has a blossoming in the fourteenth century with a different character, for instance the Golden Haggadah (British Library, Barcelona, circa 1320). This tradition is strongly influenced by Christian art on the one hand, as well as by Rabbinic literature (The building of the tower of Babel, Abraham in the fiery furnace of Nimrod), Sarajevo Haggadah (the banquet of Josef)
Italian manuscript illustration is particularly influenced by Christian art: Parma Psalter, 13th century (Psalm 138: By the Waters of Babylon): Parma Pentateuch, 15th century ( beginning of Deuteronomy: Moses speaks to the Israelites).
The Picture Bible of Moses dal Castellazzo, Venice: copy of a wood cut picture Bible from the late 15th century (formerly Warsaw, Hist. Inst, now lost): Biblical Passover celebration (the only scene for which an original wood cut has been preserved). All pictures have Hebrew and Italian titles. The Castellazzo Bible is also strongly influenced by Rabbinic literature, as are other Jewish illustration traditions (spies from the Holy Land).
In Italy, where Jews from different communities encountered each other, the Ashkenazi and the Sephardi pictorial traditions met and influenced each other.
From the 16th century on Haggadot were published in Italy: Haggadah from Mantua (1560, slavery in Egypt, miraculous multiplication of the people of Israel – borrowed from Rabbinic literature; Haggadah from Venice (1609, title page).
The Haggadah from Venice appeared during a period of blossoming of Italian printing, which begins to fade at the end of the 16th century. Later the main focus of book production moved North, where in the Jewish context the Amsterdam Haggadah was important. The Haggadah with copper engravings was produced by the convert Abraham bar Jacob, who used the sequence of copper engravings from Matthew Merian the Elder as a model (the snake miracle).
In the 18th century there is a revival of Hebrew book art, particularly in Bohemia and Moravia, but also in other places, especially in the field of the Haggadah illustrations. The commissioners are court Jews, merchants and bankers. The book art craft had survived, as Torah rolls had to be, and still have to be, written by hand. Among the producers of such manuscripts were:
Joseph ben David from Leipnitz (Moravia), Uri Feibusch Isaak Segal from Altona, Juda Löw ben Elija Hakohen from Leszno. Contrary to the medieval tradition, these illustrations are no longer influenced by Rabbinic commentary literature and therefore open the way to a modern Jewish art of painting.
(Translator: Joan Avery)
The Corresponding illustrations, selected by the Center of Jewish Art (Hebrew University, Jerusalem), can be found here: http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:524551
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Christian-Jewish encounters in art (Eisenstadt)
Begins with the observation that in earliest Christian art the Old Testament is more dominant than the New Testament.
Assumes that even before early Christian art there was Jewish Biblical iconography,
in the Jewish centres of the Middle East... show more
Begins with the observation that in earliest Christian art the Old Testament is more dominant than the New Testament.
Assumes that even before early Christian art there was Jewish Biblical iconography,
in the Jewish centres of the Middle East (Pächt).
This Jewish art not only refers back to the Biblical text, but also draws on apocryphal writing, and Jewish interpretative literature (Midrash).
Later Christian art draws on this Jewish iconography, as seen in the various echoes of the Jewish Midrash and apocryphal literature, which found their visual expression in later Christian art.
Refers to the Biblical prohibition of pictures. This must be seen in the context of pagan practices of the specific surroundings. If a practice of worship can be excluded, or if it did not exist at all in the region, there was nothing to interfere with the practice of art, especially when it had to do with two dimensional painting.
Schubert therefore assumes that there must already have been Jewish picture cycles in the 2nd century AD. The frescoes of the Dura Europos Synagogue in Eastern Syria (year 244) provide irrefutable proof of this assumption.
Deals with the Biblical iconography in the Dura Europos within the context of the canonical Bible text and Midrash literature: the anointing of David, the sacrifice of the Baal priest.
The methodology of using Midrash literature can also be applied to Christian art. There are image themes in which the canonical bible text does not allow a satisfactory interpretation. When Midrash literature leads to an understanding of the iconography, then one can assume that there is an older Jewish model.
Yet there are traditions in which both Midrashic literature and Patristic sources can be seen. In such the use of a Jewish model is not likely.
Nevertheless, earlier research also indicates iconographic parallels between paintings in the synagogue of Dura Europos and later Christian examples. As the painting in the synagogue only existed for eleven years before being destroyed by a Sassanian attack, they could have had an influence on Christian art. Schubert therefore assumes that there are common Jewish models, for instance the conversation between the Pharaoh and the Israelite midwife in the Ashburnham Pentateuch, the Old English Heptateuch and the Bury St. Edmunds Psalter. The daughter of the Pharaoh finding the infant Moses in the so-called Pamplona Bibles, Navarra, around 1300).
During various periods of the fourth century the scenes painted on the catacombs of the Via Latina were mainly from the Old Testament. These contain Midrash elements, which according to Schubert also indicate Jewish origins of the models used (examples: Abraham meeting the three angels in Mamre, Pinhas punishing Zimri and Kosbi).
The same phenomenon of Midrash element in iconography can also be observed in the Vienna Genesis, as well as in the Ashburnham Pentateuch. In the Vienna Genesis it is most of all the Joseph iconography which plays an important role, from which one can perhaps deduce that there had been a narrative of the story of Joseph in Jewish picture cycles (examples in the Vienna Genesis: the story of Asnat, Joseph’s wife; Joseph’s seduction by Potiphar’s wife; in the Ashburnham Pentateuch: Isaac and Ismael fight over the first born’s claim; Rebecca in Sem’s school).
Similar themes later re-appeared in Hebrew manuscript illustrations (conversation between Pharaoh and the Israelite midwife in the Golden Haggadah, the Kaufmann Haggadah or the Picture Bible of the Venetian woodcutter Moses dal Castellazzo
Such element, which can indicate a meeting of Jewish and Christian art then lost significance in the course of the centuries.
This topic was then discussed in detail in Kurt Schubert (publisher) Spätantikes Judentum und frühchristliche Kunst (Studia Judaica Austriaca II), Late Antiquity Judaism and Early Christian Art, Vienna 1974
(Translator: Joan Avery)
The Corresponding illustrations, selected by the Center of Jewish Art (Hebrew University, Jerusalem), can be found here: http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:521471
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Death and Resurrection in Early Jewish and Early Christian Art
The development of a Jewish concept of resurrection: there is no concept of universal resurrection in the Old Testament, nor in Middle Eastern Antiquity generally. It is only the Greek trichotomic concept of a soul that makes the belief in... show more
The development of a Jewish concept of resurrection: there is no concept of universal resurrection in the Old Testament, nor in Middle Eastern Antiquity generally. It is only the Greek trichotomic concept of a soul that makes the belief in resurrection possible. It is on this basis that the idea of the reuniting of body and soul begins to develop in the second century BC.
Discussion of the representation of Ezekiel, Chapter 37 in the Synagogue of Dura Europos, mid 3rd century A.D. The scene of the revivification.
Shows the methodological emphasis: analysis of the picture, as compared to the Bible text and to Rabbinic literature.
The fifth picture shows Greek Psyche figures with butterfly wings and indicates the infiltration of a late antique concept of creation and resurrection into Jewish thought. This is echoed in the writings of Josephus Flavius.
For comparison, Kurt Weitzmann’s analysis of the Prometheus Sarcophagus is used, the iconography of which also highlights trichotomic anthropology.
Trichotomic anthropology also exerts its influence on early Christian perception, as in Paul or Irenaeus, and on early Christian iconography, the creation of Eva in the so-called Trinity Sarcophagus, (the Dogmatic Sarcophagus, beginning of the 4th century and later in the hexaemeron cupola of San Marco, Venice, where the iconography harks back to the Cotton Genesis, Byzantium, 5th century. This late influence jars slightly with the fact that the teaching of trichotomy had been condemned in the Council of Rome (382).
The belief in an in-between stage between death and the Last Days develops in Judaism, as well as in Christianity. In late antique art this belief can be seen in the representations of Jonah sleeping under the gourd, relating to the classical iconography of the sleeping Endymion (Jonah Sarcophagus).
The concept of salvation in Old Testament iconography in late antique catacomb painting: in Christian catacombs this is expressed through a great number of scenes showing redemption or salvation. These scenes convey the hope of eschatological salvation. Closely related to this is the image of the Good Shepherd as Saviour, as taken from Roman culture. Believers are entitled to eschatological redemption through baptism and the Eucharist. Therefore the representations of baptism, the multiplication of the loaves, and ritual meals are frequently found in the catacomb paintings.
The counterpart in Jewish catacombs is seen in temple imagery referring to the eschatological third temple: The Jewish Catacomb Villa Torlonia.
Representations of Jesus: in the earliest catacomb paintings there is still no representation of the person of Jesus, with respect to Canon 36 of the Synod of Elvira, beginning of the fourth century. During this period, however, the figure of a youthful philosopher is occasionally depicted. After the fourth century Jesus appears in scenes of the resurrection of Lazarus, as conqueror over death, a thought closely linked to the theology of victory of the Roman emperors. The early representations of the passion distance themselves clearly from the crucifixion and from the suffering Jesus, (sarcophagus of Junius Bassus).
The Cross appears as the symbol of victory, of the Last Judgement and of the resurrection, (crux gemmata, Apses of Santa Pudenziana and Santi Cosma e Damiano)
Resurrection and ascension to God: this theme illustrates the close relationship between Jewish and Christian art. Moses’ ascent of Mount Sinai, (Byzantine manuscript, tenth century, or the mosaics of Santa Katharina Basilica, Sinai) is associated with the resurrection of Christ (Munich ivory from the year 400).
A central theme of early Christian and Jewish art is the representation of God. We do not find an anthropomorphic representation of God. God’s intervention is shown through images of God’s hand (Dura Europos Synagogue, Munich ivory).
The image of the ascension in the old Syriac Rabbula Gospel from the year 586 referring to the visions of Ezekiel can be set by side these early Christian representations. Here the figure of Christ rising in the radiance of a rainbow can be compared to the representations of the returning victorious emperors. Thus it transpires that the early Christian illustrations of the passion and resurrection are first and foremost about victory over death (Rabbula Codex, Ascension to Heaven).
Further sources can be found in: Kurt Schubert, Die Entwicklung der Auferstehungslehre von der nachexilischen bis zur frührabbinischen Zeit (The Development of the Teaching on Resurrection from post-exile to early Rabbinic times), BZ 6, 1962, p. 177-214.
(Translator: Joan Avery)
The Corresponding illustrations, selected by the Center of Jewish Art (Hebrew University, Jerusalem), can be found here:
http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail_object/o:526664
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CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International
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o:472145 Ursula Schubert
o:472143 Kurt und Ursula Schubert
o:472141 Kurt und Ursula Schubert
o:472139 Ursula Schubert
o:472137 Kurt und Ursula Schubert
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